Slips Trips Missteps and Their Consequences, Second Edition PDF eBook

Authors: Jon R. Abele, Alvin S. Hyde, H. Harvey Cohen, Cindy A. LaRue, Gary M. Bakken  ISBN 10: 1-933264-01-2 ISBN 13: 978-1933264-01-1 Copyright Date Ed: April 1, 2006 Pages: 375 pages PDF eBook Falls are the second leading cause of accidental deaths in the United States, but are overlooked in most literature. Of use to primary care physicians, nurses, insurance adjusters, architects, writers of building codes, attorneys, or those who care for the elderly, this book will tell you how, why, and when people will likely fall, what most likely will be injured, and how such injuries come about. It details potential trouble spots, which may cause falls, in buildings, both private and public, and how to prevent or reduce the risk of accidents. This book answers your questions on how to determine fault and liability between the plaintiff and the defendant in a slip and fall case, applying the traditional premises liability model. The included case studies and examples will help you understand the mechanics and causes of these accidents, and what human factors may be present. Biomedical factors that increase the likelihood and severity of fall injuries are covered including an extensive chapter on osteoporosis and its relation to falls and fall injury. With the very useful Fall Prevention Manual that is included, you will find potential trouble areas in and around a building before an accident occurs. Slips, Trips, Missteps and Their Consequences, 2nd Edition is peerless in its handling of an important and overlooked subject. TOPICS INCLUDE The incidence of accidental falls Classifying falls Standing, walking, the environment and gravity Human factors in falls Environmental factors in falls Aging and central nervous system changes Osteoporosis and other diseases that cause or contribute to falls Medications and iatrogenic causes of falls Building design standards and pedestrian traffic Fall injuries: spine, head, and extremities Preventing falls and injuries Premises liability Defense techniques and suggestions for slip, trip and/or fall cases Fall Prevention Manual and checklist Table of Contents: Part One: Forensic Human Factors and Ergonomics and Safety Overview Chapter 1: Standing, Walking, Environment 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Standing and Swaying 1.3 Walking Cycle 1.4 Environment 1.5 The Senile Gait 1.6 Aging, and the Pathophysiology of "Normal" Central Nervous System Changes Chapter 2: Walkway Hazards 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Slip Hazard 2.3 Coefficient of Friction 2.4 SCOF: The Tangent of the Angle of the Incline with Respect to the Horizontal 2.5 Traction Demand 2.6 Other Pedestrian Slip Causality Factors 2.7 Footwear 2.8 Ramps or Other Inclined Surfaces 2.9 Slipping During Walking 2.10 Preventing Slips 2.11 Measuring Coefficient of Friction—Equipment 2.12 Measuring Coefficient of Friction—Test Specimens 2.13 Measuring Coefficient of Friction-—Human-Based Approaches 2.14 Slip Hazard Standards and Regulations 2.15 Trip Hazard 2.16 Vertically Oriented Projecting Object Surface 2.17 Projecting Object Location 2.18 Height of the Projecting Object 2.19 Trip Hazard Standards and Regulations 2.20 Misstep Hazard 2.21 Misstep Hazard Change in Elevation 2.22 Misstep Hazard Expectations 2.23 Misstep Hazard Neuromusculoskeletal Response 2.24 Single Step, a Hazardous Condition Chapter 3: Information Processing 3.1 General 3.2 Detection 3.3 Perception 3.4 Analysis 3.5 Decision Making 3.6 Response 3.7 Action 3.8 Human Error 3.9 Risk Perception 3.10 Risk Information Processing Chapter 4: How We Fall and Why We Fall 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Fall Types 4.3 Free Falls 4.4 Rotational Falls 4.5 Crumple Falls 4.6 Tumble Falls 4.7 The Fall Event A. Fall initiation B. Fall prevention responses C. Injury prevention or mitigation responses Chapter 5: Falls and Their Causes: On Who Falls and Who Is Injured 5.1 General 5.2 The Incidence of Accidental Falls 5.3 The Incidence of Accidental Fall Injuries and Deaths 5.4 The Influence of Age on Accidental Falls and the Injuries and Deaths They Cause 5.5 The Influence of Race and Sex on Accidental Falls and the Injuries and Deaths They Cause 5.6 Summary Chapter 6: On Gravity: A Relentless Force That Would Cast Us to the Ground (How We Detect, Use and Resist the Force of Gravity) 6.1 General 6.2 "G" (The Gravitational Constant) and "g" (The Acceleration Due to the Pull of the Earth’s Gravity) 6.3 Mass Versus Weight 6.4 How We Tell Where We Are Positioned in Earth’s Gravitational Field; (or) Where Is Up and Where Is Down? And How Do We Know This Is So? 6.5 How We Tell Our Position in Space 6.6 How We Continuously Interpret and Modify Our Position in Space 6.7 Generalizations Concerning the Control of Posture and of Movement 6.8 Summary Chapter 7: Biomedical Factors That Cause Falls: Senescence and Diseases 7.1 Introduction 7.2 General 7.3 Diseases and Changes of Aging That Either Cause Falls or Increase the Chance of Accidentally Falling A. Peripheral sensors and nerves: their age-related changes and diseases B. Central nervous system age-related changes and diseases C. Cardiovascular aging and diseases D. Musculoskeletal system diseases affecting falling Chapter 8: Biomedical Factors That Cause Falls: Medications and Iatrogenic Causes 8.1 General 8.2 The Relationship Between Accidental Falls and the Type, Absolute Number, and Amount of Drugs Taken 8.3 The Relationship (if any) Between Age and Adverse Drug Reactions 8.4 What Factors Determine a Drug’s Dose? How Do These Factors Change with Increasing Age? 8.5 Adverse Drug Reactions and Polypharmacy 8.6 Summary Chapter 9: Environmental Factors That Cause Falls 9.1 General 9.2 Introduction 9.3 Environmental Factors: Ambience, Design Standards, and Pedestrian Traffic A. Ambience B. Pedestrian traffic 9.4 Falls at Home and Work A. General B. Falls at home C. Falls at work Chapter 10: Fall Injury Information 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Fall Incidence 10.3 Death and Death Rates by Age and Sex 10.4 All Deaths Due to Injury 10.5 Unintentional-Injury Deaths by Month and Type PART TWO:INJURIES Chapter 11: Stability, Fall and Injury 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Stability 11.3 Fall Definition 11.4 Fall Injuries 11.5 Impact Surfaces Chapter 12: A Brief View of Osteoporosis: A Biomedical Factor That Makes Fractures from Falling More Probable 12.1 General 12.2 Osteopenia 12.3 Osteoporosis Further Defined and Characterized 12.4 The Rates of Bone Loss in Women and Men with Age 12.5 The Prevention and Treatment of Osteoporosis 12.6 Summary Chapter 13: Fall Injuries 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Factors That Determine Response to Falls A. Fall height and same-level falls B. Impact direction (position at landing) C. Protective reflexes for falls D. Impacted surface material E. Individual disposition, or, the age, size, sex, and health of fall victims 13.3 The Distribution of Injury Sites Resulting from Same-Level Falls A. Head injuries from same-level falls B. Injuries of the spine from falls C. Fall injuries of the extremities 13.4 Summary PART THREE: LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS Chapter 14: Premises Liability- 14.1 Preparing a Slip, Trip, or Misstep and Fall Case 14.2 Duty Owed 14.3 Classification of Plaintiff as Trespasser 14.4 Duty Owed to Licensee 14.5 Duty Owed to Invitee 14.6 Potential Defendants 14.7 Breach of Duty 14.8 Violation of Statute 14.9 Notice of Dangerous Condition 14.10 Actual Notice 14.11 Plaintiff’s Attention Diverted 14.12 Constructive Notice 14.13 Activities on Premises 14.14 Illumination 14.15 Proximate Cause 14.16 Actions by Third Parties 14.17 Self-Service Activities 14.18 Damages 14.19 Enhancement Factors Chapter 15: Defenses in a Slip, Trip, or Misstep and Fall Case 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Not Proper Party Defendant 15.3 No Duty Owed to Plaintiff 15.4 No Prior Accidents 15.5 Knowledge of Observable Dangers 15.6 Snow and Ice 15.7 No Breach of Duty 15.8 Proximate Cause 15.9 Trivial Defect 15.10 Static Condition 15.11 Failure to Prove Cause of Accident 15.12 Damages 15.13 Affirmative Defenses A. Assumption of the risk B. Comparative fault/contributory negligence 15.14 Case Preparation A. Witnesses B. Expert witnesses Chapter 16: Slip and Fall Fact Circumstances 16.1 Slip in Parking Lot 16.2 Slip on Spilled Drink 16.3 Slip on Ramp 16.4 Fall on Stairs 16.5 Slip in Shower 16.6 Absorbent Floor Mats 16.7 Slip on Packing Band 16.8 Slip on Hardwood Floor 16.9 Hazard Created by Other Customer 16.10 Self-Service Activity Chapter 17: Table of Cases Sample Deposition Slip and Fall Case PART FOUR :APPLICATIONS Chapter 18: Level Surfaces 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Common Walkway Surfaces A. Natural stone B. Terrazzo C. Tile D. Carpeting and wood flooring E. Bathing surfaces and showers F. Sidewalks and concrete flooring Chapter 19: Stairways and Handrails 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Stairway Definitions 19.3 High-Risk Stairs 19.4 Step Geometry 19.5 Winder, Circular, and Spiral Stairs 19.6 Single steps 19.7 Stair Landings 19.8 Handrails 19.9 Human Factors in Using Stairs 19.10 Staircase Fall Patterns 19.11 Summary Chapter 20: Ramps 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Ramp Requirements 20.3 Fall Patterns on Ramps Chapter 21: Ladders 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Ladder Types A. Portable wood ladders B. Portable metal ladders C. Fixed ladders 21.3 Common Ladder Fall Patterns 21.4 Ladder Hazard Warnings 21.5 Safe Ladder Use A. Ladder placement B. Ascending or descending ladders C. Other recommended practices 21.6 Electrical Hazards and Metal Ladders 21.7 Ladder Inspection and Maintenance 21.8 Ladder Storage Chapter 22: Vehicle Ingress and Egress 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Car Haulers 22.3 Cab-Over-Engine Tractors 22.4 Conventional Tractors 22.5 General Trailers 22.6 Conclusions and Recommendations Chapter 23: Elevated Walking and Working Surfaces 23.1 Introduction 23.2 The Hazard 23.3 Hazard Exposure 23.4 Utility Value 23.5 Risk of Injury 23.6 Hazard Awareness and Exposure Magnitude 23.7 Hazard Avoidance 23.8 Laws, Codes, Standards, and References Chapter 24: Elevators and Escalators 24.1 Introduction 24.2 The Hazards 24.3 Hazard Exposure 24.4 Utility Value 24.5 Risk of Injury 24.6 Hazard Awareness and Exposure Magnitude 24.7 Hazard Avoidance 24.8 Laws, Codes, Standards, and References Chapter 25: Skylights 25.1 Introduction 25.2 The Hazard 25.3 Hazard Exposure 25.4 Utility Value 25.5 Risk of Injury 25.6 Hazard Awareness and Exposure Magnitude 25.7 Hazard Avoidance 25.8 Laws, Codes, Standards, and References Chapter 26: Warnings for Safe Pedestrian Use 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Scope of the Problem 26.3 Perceptual-Cognitive Factors in Warning Adequacy and Effectiveness A. Unexpected impediment in a level walking surface B. Unexpected change in level C. Unexpected change in traction 26.4 Stairways A. Unexpected variation in step geometry B. Marking of handrails C. Marking of stair treads 26.5 Ramps 26.6 Sidewalks 26.7 Driveways and Parking Lots 26.8 Curbs in Parking Garages 26.9 Pathways Through Landscaped Areas 26.10 Walkways in and Around Residences 26.11 Aisles in and Around Commercial Establishments 26.12 Other Elevated Walkway or Working Surfaces 26.13 Conclusions  PART FIVE: THE FALL PREVENTION MANUAL The Fall Prevention Manual Appendix A: Friction and Slipperiness Appendix B: Lighting Appendix C: Walking Kinematics and Biomechanics: How Falls Occur Appendix D: Perception: Why Don’t We See What Is There? Appendix E: Common Fall Incident Patterns Appendix F: Preventive Actions Appendix G: Premises Fall Incident Investigation Appendix H: References and Bibliography for Codes, Standards and Guidelines